PERSONALITY -

PERCEPTION 

WE SEE

OUR LOOKS:

Neatly groomed. 

Skin Tone. 

Structure of the body - Fat , Thin

Types of consumer behavior

There are four main types of consumer behavior:

1. Complex buying behavior

This type of behavior is encountered when consumers are buying an expensive, infrequently bought product. They are highly involved in the purchase process and consumers’ research before committing to a high-value investment. Imagine buying a house or a car; these are an example of a complex buying behavior.

2. Dissonance-reducing buying behavior

The consumer is highly involved in the purchase process but has difficulties determining the differences between brands. ‘Dissonance’ can occur when the consumer worries that they will regret their choice.

Imagine you are buying a lawnmower. You will choose one based on price and convenience, but after the purchase, you will seek confirmation that you’ve made the right choice.

3. Habitual buying behavior

Habitual purchases are characterized by the fact that the consumer has very little involvement in the product or brand category. Imagine grocery shopping: you go to the store and buy your preferred type of bread. You are exhibiting a habitual pattern, not strong brand loyalty.

4. Variety seeking behavior

In this situation, a consumer purchases a different product not because they weren’t satisfied with the previous one, but because they seek variety. Like when you are trying out new shower gel scents.

Knowing what types of customers your e-store attracts will give you a better idea about how to segment customer types.

AIDA principle of analysing consumer behaviour:

A - Attention

I - Interest

D - Desire

A- Action

What is psychology? 

What does the word Psychology mean? People use it so often. Do people know what it means?

Here are some usages of the word I’ve come across.   

• I want to understand the psychology of people who just pick up a gun and shoot.    
• What is the psychology of a customer?    
• Are you going to study my psychology and tell me who I am?    
• You have to understand the psychology of farmers to understand what troubles them.    
• Architects have to understand the psychological needs of their clients so their house becomes a home.  
• Psychological experiments show that people do not understand what they really desire.  
• I am going to study psychology and help people.    
• Is psychology a science? Is it the same as philosophy?    
• Economics depends on the psychology of people.    
• Darling, help me understand your psychology. 
• Why can’t we go to the reunion, you have psychological issues.    
• What is the psychology of an abused kid?    
• Your psychology is very bad. Your psychology is very good.     

These are just sentences. It may not be hard to understand them at first but let’s put the word under a microscope and study it. 

Some more examples of what people think psychology means   

• Personality (personality wins) 
• Emotions 
• Thinking 
• Something inside the mind 
• Relationship of strong/impactful events in life and one’s thoughts, behavior, and emotions

What does psychology mean?

What do people think psychology does? 

What do they think people who learn psychology do?

• Predict behavior 
• Reveal the truth
• Understand the personality 
• Mind reading (this never happens) 
• Analyze people
• Sex, Relationships, Life advice 

This is what people often assume, however, this is NOT always true. 

What do people assume (incorrectly) about psychologists?

• They can read minds 
• They can analyze you better than anyone else on the planet 
• They can talk and cure your problems 
• They have no psychological issues and never have conflicts (this one is my favorite)

What do psychologists actually do?

• Help people understand their mental health and work with them to cope & adjust in life.
• Study how many aspects of life relate to each other.
• Conduct studies to understand patterns of behavior & thoughts.
• Implement studies to provide therapy, counseling, and consultation
• Work alongside different professionals to improve aspects of business, products, services, technology, communication, etc.
• Create self-help resources for people to independently cope.

This article on psychology career options could help you understand the wider industrial scope of psychology.

Note: The funny thing about personality is that people don’t see personality as their enduring pattern of behavior, reactions, thinking, world-view, etc. They think of personality as a broad term that accounts for everything about an individual. That is partly the reason why people associate personality & psychology so tightly. From a scientific perspective, psychology does study personality but it is just one of the many factors that it studies.

The nature and scope of psychology

Psychology definition:

  American psychological association 

• Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. The discipline embraces all aspects of the human experience — from the functions of the brain to the actions of nations, from child development to care for the aged. In every conceivable setting from scientific research centers to mental health care services, “the understanding of behavior” is the enterprise of psychologists. 

  Merriam Webster 

• The science of mind and behavior
• The mental or behavioral characteristics of an individual or group
• The study of mind and behavior in relation to a particular field of knowledge or activity

  Some more variations of the meaning of psychology:  

• Psychology is the scientific investigation of how people behave, think, and feel. It includes underlying mechanisms that involve the environment, biology, and the mind. 
• Psychological investigations try to describe, predict, analyze, and create actionable outcomes that help people. Actionable outcomes include therapy, learning design, altering protocols at a workplace, etc.
• Today, psychology is closely related to fields such as cognitive science, neuroscience, economics, law, public health, UX & UI. 

Specializations and branches of psychology

The following broad branches of psychology will elucidate the overall nature and scope of psychology: 

1. Clinical psychology – the study, assessment, prevention, coping, and treatment of mental health issues and disorders such as depression & schizophrenia (example)
2. Organizational & industrial psychology – the study of how professional environments function with respect to employment, assessment & recruiting, workplace wellbeing, conflict resolution, team building, etc. (example)
3. Social psychology – the study of how people interact in social contexts and what variable affect social behavior, identity, and cognition (example)
4. Cognitive psychology – the study of mental processes that enable thinking, feeling, language, art, etc. (example)
5. Behavioral psychology – the study of human and animal behavior (example)
6. Developmental psychology – the study of specific factors relevant to a certain age group or developmental stage across a lifespan and trends across the lifespan 
7. Evolutionary psychology – the study of human and animal behavior in an evolutionary context and the study of adaptability and deeply rooted tendencies (example)
8. Forensic psychology – the study of how criminals behave and think
9. Neuropsychology – the assessment of brain functioning in a clinical setting
10. Positive psychology – the study of wellbeing and living a good life (example)
11. Neuroscience – the study of the brain as a biological unit and its specifics that may or may not directly relate to behavior, thoughts, or feelings. It includes an understanding of how neurons communicate and function.  (example)
12. Sports psychology – the study, training, and coping of sportsmen
13. School psychology – the study of a variety of psychological variables in a school context (example)
14. Cyber-psychology – the study of human behavior with a focus on internet-based behavior (example)

These are just 14 of the broad specializations. There are many many more – geriatric psychology, engineering psychology, counseling psychology, experimental and quantitative psychology, etc. You can snowball around these terms.       

Job Analysis: Definition, Importance, Components, Methods, Purpose, Process

Job analysis is the process of studying and collecting information relating to the operations and responsibilities of a specific job.

The information thus collected is analyzed, and the facts about the nature of job working conditions and qualities in an employee can be easily known. Job analysis defines the jobs within the organization and the behaviors necessary to perform these jobs.

Job Analysis is a systematic exploration, study, and recording of a specific job’s responsibilities, duties, skills, accountabilities, work environment, and ability requirements.

It also involves determining the relative importance of the duties, responsibilities, and physical and emotional skills for a given job.

Definition of Job Analysis

Mathis and Jackson (1999) view job analysis as a systematic way to gather and analyze information about the content and human requirements of jobs and the context in which jobs are performed.

Dessier (2005) defines job analysis as the procedure through which job analyst determines the duties of different positions of an’ organization and the characteristics of the people to hire them.

Dale Yoder (1983) defines job analysis as “a process in which jobs are studied to determine what tasks and responsibilities they include their relationships to other jobs, the conditions under which work is performed, and the personnel capabilities required for satisfactory performance.”

In the opinion of Strauss and Sayles (1977), job analysis consists of two parts, a statement of work to be done (Job description) and the skills and knowledge which must be possessed by anyone filling the job (Job Specification)”.

According to Gary Dessler, “Job analysis is the procedure for determining the duties and skills requirements of a job and the kind of person who should be hired for it.”

According to Edwin B. Flippo, “Job Analysis is the process of studying and collecting information relating to the operation and responsibilities of a specific job.”

“Job analysis is a systematic way to gather and analyze information about the content and the human requirements of jobs and the context in which jobs are performed.” – Decenzo and Robbins.

Job analysis involves collecting data about the performance of the job in an organization.

However, this definition is probably too simplistic when all of the different types of information that must be collected are considered.

For example, the data collected should clearly describe exactly what is required to perform a specific job.

This should include the:

• Knowledge: Knowledge is defined as the degree to which a job holder must know specific technical material.
• Skill: Skill is defined as adequate performance on tasks requiring tools, equipment, and machinery.
• Abilities: Abilities refers to the physical and material capabilities needed to perform tasks not requiring the use of tools, equipment, and machinery. Further, where the job is completed must be considered.

So the types of information to be collected by a job analysis are shown below:

• Work activities.
• Work-oriented activities.
• Machines, tools, equipment, and work aids are used.
• Job-related tangible and intangible.
• Work performance.
• Job context.
• Personal requirement.

So. job analysis is the process of determining and reporting pertinent information relating to the nature of a specific job. It is the determination of the tasks that comprise the job and the skills, knowledge, abilities, and responsibilities required of the holder for successful job performance.

The end product of a job analysis is a written description of the actual requirements of the job.

Features of Job Analysis

From the definitions in the preceding section, we can list out the features of job analysis as follows:

1. Job analysis is a process of gathering relevant information about various aspects of a job and identifying tasks required to be performed as part of it.
2. It approaches systematically defining the role, context, conditions, human behavior, performance standards, and responsibilities of a job.
3. It helps in establishing the job’s worth to an organization. In other words, it measures the value and contribution of a job to the growth of the organization.
4. It establishes job-relatedness, which is crucial for HR decisions involving recruitment, selection, compensations, training, health, and safety.

Uses or Objectives of Job Analysis

A sound human resource management practice dictates that a thorough job analysis should be done, as it may provide a deeper understanding of the behavioral requirements of jobs.

This, in turn, creates a solid basis on which to make job-related employment decisions. Job analysis information is used for many purposes:

Organizational structure and design

By clarifying job requirements and interrelationships among jobs, responsibilities at all levels can be specified, promoting efficiency and minimizing overlap or duplication.

Human resource planning

Job analysis is the foundation of forecasting the needs for human resources and plans for such activities as training, transfer, or promotion.

Job analysis information is incorporated into a human resource information system.

Work simplification

Job analysis provides information related to the job, and this data can be used to make the process or job simple.

Work simplification means dividing the job into small parts, i.e., different operations in a product line or process, improving production or job performance.

Setting up of standards.

Standard means minimum acceptable qualities or results or performance or rewards regarding a particular job.

Job analysis provides information about the job, and the standard of each can be established using this information.

Support for personnel activities

Job analysis supports various personnel activities like recruitment, selection, placement, training and development, wage administration, performance appraisal, etc.

Job description

A job description is a job profile that describes the contents, environment, and condition of jobs. It is prepared based on data collected through job analysis. It provides information relating to the activities and duties to be performed in a job.

Job description differentiates one job from another by introducing unique characteristics of each job.

Job specification

A job specification is another notable objective of job analysis. It includes information relating to the requirements of skills and abilities to perform a specific task.

It states the minimum acceptable qualifications that an incumbent must possess to perform the assigned duty successfully. The job specification statement identifies the knowledge, skills, abilities needed to perform that task effectively.

Job classification system

Selection, training, and pay systems often key to job classification systems.

Without job analysis information, it is impossible to determine the relationships among jobs in an organization reliably.

Job evaluation and compensation

Job analysis also provides the required information that is necessary for evaluating the worthiness of jobs.

After the preparation of job description and job specification statements, it assists in the evaluation of actual performance against the predetermined standard. Then the deviation (if any) is found out that has taken place during action.

Moreover, it helps establish the value of different jobs in a hierarchical order, allowing comparing jobs one from another.

These, in turn, are valuable in helping managers identify the kinds of employees they should recruit, select, and develop and provide guidance for decisions about training and career development, performance appraisal, and compensation administration.

Strategic Choice of Job Analysis

The following strategic guidelines should be examined when deciding whether to conduct a job analysis;

1. The primary purpose for conducting a job analysis should be specified (such as establishing wage rates or recruiting) to help ensure that all relevant information is examined.
2. The primary purpose of conducting a job analysis should be input for the types of information collected (for example, work activities, machines & tools used, or job context).
3. The purpose of the job analysis, the types of information required, the time & cost constraints, the level of employee involvement & the level of detail desired should be specified before choosing one or more of the available data collection methods.
4. The strategy of an organization can influence which human resource activities will be emphasized. In turn, certain human resource activities (such as selection or performance appraisal) may require different job analysis methods.
   1. Managers should follow or include the following steps when conducting a job analysis.
   2. Determine the purpose of the job analysis.
   3. Identify the jobs to be analyzed.
   4. Determine the data collection method.
   5. Explain the process to employees & involve them.
   6. Collect job analysis information.
   7. Process the job analysis information.
   8. Review & update frequently.
5. The job analysis should be designed so that job descriptions & job specifications can be derived easily.
6. Managers should communicate all relevant information to employees concerning the job analysis to prevent unnecessary uncertainty & anxiety.
7. If major organizational changes have taken place, managers should consider conducting a job analysis.
8. If major organizations are anticipated, managers should consider conducting a more future-oriented job analysis.

Purposes of Job Analysis

The data collected from the job analysis can be used for a variety of purposes.

These are:

1. Job description.
2. Job specification.
3. Job evaluation.

Job Description

Job descriptions describe the duties, responsibilities, working conditions, and activities of a particular job. Job descriptions vary in terms of the level of detail provided.

However, several components are present in virtually every job description—for example, the job title, type of summary, and worker requirements.

One valuable source for locating standardized job descriptions is the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT), published by the US Department of labor, providing more than 12,000 occupations. Managers can adapt the standardized job descriptions from the DOT to the specific jobs within their firm.

Job Specification

Job specifications detail the knowledge, skills, and abilities relevant to a job, including the education, experience, specialized training, personal traits, and manual dexterity required. The job specification is important for several reasons.

First, certain jobs have the qualifications required by law.

For example, airline pilots, attorneys, and medical doctors all need to be licensed. Another type of job specification is based on professional tradition.

For example, university professors must usually hold a Ph.D. or equivalent degree if they will be in a tenure track position.

Finally, job specifications might involve establishing certain standards or criteria that are deemed necessary for successful performance.

Job Evaluation

The information gathered during a job analysis can be used as input for the organization’s job evaluation system. The job evaluation determines the worth of a particular job to the organization.

This information is primarily used to determine the pay for the job. Thus, employees should be paid more for working on more difficult jobs.

Components of Job Analysis

A job can be broken into several components and arranged into a hierarchy of work activities. This hierarchy is depicted in the following figure;

• Element
• Task.
• Duty.
• Position.
• Job.
• Occupation.
• Job Family.

Element

The smallest practical unit into which any work activity can be subdivided.

Task

An identifiable unit of work activity produced through the application of a Composite of methods, procedures, and techniques.

Duty

An individual performs several distinct tasks to complete a work activity for which he or she is responsible.

Position

The combination of all the duties required of one person performed a job.

Job

A group of positions that are the same enough or their job elements tasks and others to be covered by the same job analysis.

Occupation

Jobs combined across organizations based upon the skills, exhaustion, and responsibilities required by the jobs.

Job Family

A category in which similar cocoons are grouped.